Sex-specific effects of environmental pollutants on pulmonary immune responses

Environmental pollutants can adversely impact various physiological processes, affecting systems such as the respiratory and immune systems. Immune responses are influenced by various factors, including age, hormonal status, genetic background, and, notably, sex, with effects extending to both innate and adaptive immunity. External factors, like environmental pollutants, can also disrupt innate and/or adaptive immunity and compromise pathogen recognition and memory against future infections. Furthermore, environmental pollutants can play a pivotal role in the development and exacerbation of many chronic respiratory diseases. It is becoming increasingly evident that environmental pollutants elicit sex-specific effects across different species. This review highlights recent findings on the intricate interplay between sex differences and immune-related effects induced by environmental pollutants, with a particular focus on the dysregulation of pulmonary immune responses.