Retinal and choroidal manifestations in bartonellosis, lyme disease, and syphilis

Infections with bartonellosis, lyme, and syphilis are not uncommon, especially in selected populations of patients who are at risk. Ocular manifestations, which include retinal and choroidal diseases, are protean and may be initial presentations of the infections or may represent extension of the systemic infectious processes. The diagnosis is often established clinically, with serologic evaluations performed for confirmation. Therapy is targeted with speci fic anti-infectious agents aiming directly at the underlying infectious organisms. Systemic corticosteroid may be used subsequently to provide complementary control of the in flammation. Ocular involvements, similar to central nervous system disease, mandate intravenous administration of therapeutic agents over suf ficient treatment duration.