Lead effects on protamine-DNA binding

Background: Lead impairs male fertility and may affect offspring of exposed males, but the mechanisms for this impairment are not completely clear. Protamine P1 and P2 families pack and protect mammalian sperm DNA. Human HP2 is a zinc-protein and may have an important role in fertility. As lead has affinity for zinc-containing proteins, we evaluated its ability in vitro to bind to HP2 and its effects on HP2-DNA binding. Methods and Results: UV/VIS spectroscopic data indicated that HP2 binds both Pb²⁺ and Zn²⁺(as chloride salts). They also provided evidence that thiol groups mainly participate for Zn²⁺-binding; however, HP2 has additional binding sites for Pb²⁺. The mobility shift assay showed that lead interaction with HP2 caused a dose-dependent decrease on HP2 binding to DNA, suggesting that lead may alter chromatin stability. Conclusions: These in vitro results demonstrate that lead can interact with HP2 altering the DNA-protamine binding. This chemical interaction of lead with protamines may result in chromatin alterations, which in turn may lead to male fertility problems and eventually to DNA damage. (C) 2000 Wiley-Liss, Inc.