Introduction

The modern human body is the product of a long evolutionary history stretching back millions of years. Early 'anatomically modern humans' (EAM), that is, Homo sapiens, appeared in the late Middle Pleistocene and were the only form to survive until the end of the Pleistocene. This chapter discusses on general pan-European variation in body size and shape, long-bone robusticity, sexual dimorphism in body size/shape and robusticity, and upper-limb bone bilateral asymmetry. It considers changes in body size/shape and bone structural properties within some specific regions, including more local archeological and historical context. The chapter includes some anthropometric data for recent living populations from the regions, to allow further assessment of very recent secular changes in body size. Both body size and shape must be considered when assessing long-bone strength, because each influences the mechanical loadings on the limbs.