TY - JOUR
T1 - Access to pharmacies and pharmacy services in New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Houston, 2015-2020
AU - Guadamuz, Jenny S.
AU - Alexander, G. Caleb
AU - Zenk, Shannon N.
AU - Kanter, Genevieve P.
AU - Wilder, Jocelyn R.
AU - Qato, Dima M.
N1 - Funding Information:
Disclosures : Dr. Guadamuz reported current employment with Flatiron Health Inc, an independent subsidiary of the Roche group; this study was conducted prior this employment. Dr. Qato has received funding from Cardinal Health and the Blue Cross Blue Shield Institute and is a consultant for Public Citizen’s Health Research Group. Dr. Alexander is past Chair and a current member of FDA’s Peripheral and Central Nervous System Advisory Committee; is a co-founding Principal and equity holder in Monument Analytics, a health care consultancy whose clients include the life sciences industry as well as plaintiffs in opioid litigation; and is a past member of OptumRx’s National P&T Committee. These arrangements have been reviewed and approved by Johns Hopkins University in accordance with its conflict-of-interest policies. Dr. Kanter has received research support from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (R01 HS023615 – Groeneveld; R01 HS025184 - Werner) and from the National Institute for Health Care Management. She has also received funds from the Commonwealth of Kentucky as part of a Medicaid evaluation contract.
Funding Information:
Funding: This study was supported, in part, by the National Institute on Aging (R21AG049283). Dima M. Qato and Shannon N. Zenk were supported, in part, by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, as part of the Clinical Scholars program.
Funding Information:
Disclosures: Dr. Guadamuz reported current employment with Flatiron Health Inc, an independent subsidiary of the Roche group; this study was conducted prior this employment. Dr. Qato has received funding from Cardinal Health and the Blue Cross Blue Shield Institute and is a consultant for Public Citizen's Health Research Group. Dr. Alexander is past Chair and a current member of FDA's Peripheral and Central Nervous System Advisory Committee; is a co-founding Principal and equity holder in Monument Analytics, a health care consultancy whose clients include the life sciences industry as well as plaintiffs in opioid litigation; and is a past member of OptumRx's National P&T Committee. These arrangements have been reviewed and approved by Johns Hopkins University in accordance with its conflict-of-interest policies. Dr. Kanter has received research support from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (R01 HS023615 – Groeneveld; R01 HS025184 - Werner) and from the National Institute for Health Care Management. She has also received funds from the Commonwealth of Kentucky as part of a Medicaid evaluation contract. Funding: This study was supported, in part, by the National Institute on Aging (R21AG049283). Dima M. Qato and Shannon N. Zenk were supported, in part, by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, as part of the Clinical Scholars program.
Publisher Copyright:
© 2021 American Pharmacists Association®
PY - 2021/11/1
Y1 - 2021/11/1
N2 - Background: Despite the importance of pharmacies in ensuring medications and health care needs are met, there is limited up-to-date information regarding access to pharmacies or their services in the United States. Objectives: To evaluate trends and disparities in access to pharmacies in 4 largest cities in the United States, New York City, Los Angeles, Houston, and Chicago, by neighborhood racial and ethnic composition from 2015 to 2020. Methods: Data from the National Council for Prescription Drug Programs (2015-2020) and the American Community Survey (2015-2019) were used. We examined neighborhoods (i.e., census tracts) and evaluated disparities in “pharmacy deserts” (low-income neighborhoods (1) whose average distance to the nearest pharmacy was at least 1 mile or (2) whose average distance to the nearest pharmacy was at least 0.5 mile and at least 100 households had no vehicle access). We also evaluated the differences in pharmacy closures and the availability of pharmacy services. Results: From 2015 to 2020, the percent of neighborhoods with pharmacy deserts declined in New York City (from 1.6% to 0.9% of neighborhoods, P < 0.01), remained stable in Los Angeles (13.7% to 13.4%, P = 0.58) and Houston (27.0% to 28.5%, P = 0.18), and increased in Chicago (15.0% to 19.9%, P < 0.01). Pharmacy deserts were persistently more common in Black and Latino neighborhoods in all 4 cities. As of 2020, pharmacies in Black and Latino neighborhoods were also more likely to close and less likely to offer immunization, 24-hour, and drive-through services than pharmacies in other neighborhoods. Conclusion: To reduce disparities in access to medications and health care services, including those in response to the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic (e.g., testing and vaccinations), policies that improve pharmacy access and expand the provision of pharmacy services in minority neighborhoods are critical.
AB - Background: Despite the importance of pharmacies in ensuring medications and health care needs are met, there is limited up-to-date information regarding access to pharmacies or their services in the United States. Objectives: To evaluate trends and disparities in access to pharmacies in 4 largest cities in the United States, New York City, Los Angeles, Houston, and Chicago, by neighborhood racial and ethnic composition from 2015 to 2020. Methods: Data from the National Council for Prescription Drug Programs (2015-2020) and the American Community Survey (2015-2019) were used. We examined neighborhoods (i.e., census tracts) and evaluated disparities in “pharmacy deserts” (low-income neighborhoods (1) whose average distance to the nearest pharmacy was at least 1 mile or (2) whose average distance to the nearest pharmacy was at least 0.5 mile and at least 100 households had no vehicle access). We also evaluated the differences in pharmacy closures and the availability of pharmacy services. Results: From 2015 to 2020, the percent of neighborhoods with pharmacy deserts declined in New York City (from 1.6% to 0.9% of neighborhoods, P < 0.01), remained stable in Los Angeles (13.7% to 13.4%, P = 0.58) and Houston (27.0% to 28.5%, P = 0.18), and increased in Chicago (15.0% to 19.9%, P < 0.01). Pharmacy deserts were persistently more common in Black and Latino neighborhoods in all 4 cities. As of 2020, pharmacies in Black and Latino neighborhoods were also more likely to close and less likely to offer immunization, 24-hour, and drive-through services than pharmacies in other neighborhoods. Conclusion: To reduce disparities in access to medications and health care services, including those in response to the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic (e.g., testing and vaccinations), policies that improve pharmacy access and expand the provision of pharmacy services in minority neighborhoods are critical.
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U2 - 10.1016/j.japh.2021.07.009
DO - 10.1016/j.japh.2021.07.009
M3 - Article
C2 - 34366287
AN - SCOPUS:85112604833
SN - 1544-3191
VL - 61
SP - e32-e41
JO - Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association. American Pharmaceutical Association
JF - Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association. American Pharmaceutical Association
IS - 6
ER -